所谓动名词(gerund)就是名词,只是保有一些动词的功能.所以它在句中可以作主语,宾语,表语,同位语,定语等那些名词可以充当的成分.
而现在分词(present participle)相当于形容词,在句中作定语或者状语
所以当-ing形式出现在句中作主语,宾语,同位语时,它肯定时gerund.
当-ing形式出现在句中作状语时,它肯定是present participle.
它们有可能被弄错的是作表语和定语时.其实也很好区分
1. 作表语: 我们知道, 名词和形容词都可以作表语.
This is water(n.).
It is transparent(adj).
这时你肯定能明白,如果-ing作表语相当于n.它就是gerund. 反之相当于adj.时它就是present.participle.
The situation both at home and abroad is very inspiring.
One of the best exercises is swimming.
2. 作定语时的区别我在回答中已经解释了. 动名词作定语时，表示它所修饰的名词的性能和用途，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上没有主谓关系；现在分词作定语时，表示它所修饰的名词正在进行的动作，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上有主谓关系.
a sleeping bag.(用途)=a bag for sleeping
a sleeping child = a child is sleeping (child是sleep的主语,sleep是child发出的动作)
(呵呵下面再请你告诉我它们分别是什么吧!
a swimming girl
a swimming pool
3. 最后来解释修饰他们到底该用是adv, 还是adj.
无论是Present participle. 还是gerund, 它们都叫做动词的-ing形式(所以若有人分不清它们时,多把它们混为一谈).也就是说它们都有动词的特点,故而都可用adv修饰.
eg: Reading a novel intently, I didn’t realize he came in. (reading, 现分作状语, 用adv intently修饰)
eg: My dream is speaking English perfectly. (speaking动名词,副词perfectly修饰.)
但gerund不仅有动词的特点,它也有名词的特点,这就决定了它也可以像名词一样用物主代词,形容词来修饰.
Would you mind my(物主代词) sitting here?
The mellow(愉快的, 形容词) singing of the birds announces the coming of spring
动名词和现在分词：都称作动状词（Verbal），即由动词变化而来，仍然具有动词的性质与原义，但不能作动词使用的词。
动名词与现在分词的区别主要是：－ing形式在句中作定语，它可能是现在分词，也可能是动名词。
区别方法是：
动名词作定语时：说明被修饰的名词的用途（可以用"use for +动名词"这个结构代替），
它和所修饰的名词在逻辑上没有主谓关系；
现在分词作定语时：表示它所修饰的名词的行为，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上有主谓关系
（可以扩展为定语从句）；
还有一种区别方法是：
如果ing形式相当于一个名词，可以与主语交换位置，它就是动名词。
如果－ing形式相当于 形容词，不能与主语交换位置，它就是现在分词。
a sleeping car = a car used for sleeping 一节卧车车厢 （sleeping此处为动名词 ）
a sleeping child =a child who is sleeping 一个睡着的孩子 （sleeping此处为现在分词 ）
2.动名词具有名词的性质：
（1）可以和名词一样有冠词或this、some等形容词；
A knocking at the door was heard
（2）可以和名词一样有所有格、复数形式；
He enjoys reading forreading’s sake, not for scholarship.
He is so busy that I can’t keep track of all his comings and goings.
（3）可以带有所有格已表明动作者。
Please excuse my coming late.
3. “动名词+名词”和“现在分词+名词”的读音不同，
“动名词+名词”的重音在“动名词”上（a ‘sleepingsuit），
“现在分词+名词”的重音在“名词”上（a sleeping ‘child）。
4. 动名词用法的特殊情况
① No+动名词——用于简短的禁令或禁律
No smoking=Don't do=Don't smoke.
② There is no+-ing（…是不可能的）= It is impossible to ~ = No one can ~ (or We cannot ~)
There is no tellingwhen lasting peace will come.
(谁也不知道永久的和平何时到来)
③ Never (or not) … without + -ing （每次…都…）= whenever
He never comes withoutbringing some present.
④ It goes without saying that （…是不用说的）= It isneedless to say that
It goes withoutsaying that no animal can live without breathing.
⑤ Do+动名词（做需要若干时间或一再重复的事情）——
动名词之前都由the、所有 格或some/a little/ much/ a lot of 之类的形容词。
Do you do muchfishing?
⑥ On (or upon) +动名词（当…，一…就…）=when (or as soonas) +S. + V.
⑦ Of one’s own +动名词（自己…的）=-ed by oneself
He showed me apicture of his own painting.
⑧ Make a point of +动名词（必定，重视）= make it apoint to ~
He makes a point ofcalling on me on New Year’s Day.
⑨ Be on (or upon) the point of +动名词（正要）= be justabout to ~
5. 如果动名词形式在句中充当状语和补语，那么它一定是现在分词。
如果－ing形式在句中充当主语、宾语、同位语，那么它一定是动名词。
动名词与现在分词的区别主要是：
1. 如果－ing形式在句中作表语，那么它可能是现在分词，也可能是动名词。区别方法是：
动名词作定语时，说明被修饰的名词的用途（可以用"use for +动名词"这个结构代替），它和所修饰的名词在逻辑上没有主谓关系；现在分词作定语时，表示它所修饰的名词的行为，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上有主谓关系（可以扩展为定语从句）。
E.g.: a sleeping car=a car used for sleeping 一节卧车车厢 （sleeping此处为动名词 ）
a sleeping child=a child who is sleeping 一个睡着的孩子 （sleeping此处为现在分词 ）
2. 动名词具有名词的性质：
可以和名次一样有冠词或this、some等形容词； E.g.: A knocking at the door was heard
可以和名次一样有所有格、复数形式；
E.g.: He enjoys reading for reading’s sake, not for scholarship.
He is so busy that I can’t keep track of all his comings and goings.
可以带有所有格已表明动作者。 E.g.: Please excuse my coming late.
3. 如果－ing形式在句中作表语，那么它可能是现在分词，也可能是动名词。区别方法是：
如果ing形式相当于一个名词，可以与主语交换位置，它就是动名词。如果－ing形式相当于形容词，不能与主语交换位置，它就是现在分词。
4. “动名词+名词”和“现在分词+名词”的读音不同，前者的重音在“动名词”上（a ‘sleeping suit），而后者的重音在“名词”上（a sleeping ‘child）。
5. 动名词用法的特殊情况
① No+动名词——用于简短的禁令或禁律 E.g.: No smoking.
② There is no+-ing（…是不可能的）= It is impossible to ~ = No one can ~ (or We cannot ~)
E.g.: There is no telling when lasting peace will come. (谁也不知道永久的和平何时到来)
③ Never (or not) … without + -ing （每次…都…）= whenever
E.g.: He never comes without bringing some present.
④ It goes without saying that （…是不用说的）= It is needless to say that
E.g.: It goes without saying that no animal can live without breathing.
⑤ Do+动名词（做需要若干时间或一再重复的事情）——动名词之前都由the、所有格或some/a little/ much/ a lot of 之类的形容词。
E.g.: Do you do much fishing?
⑥ On (or upon) +-ing （当…，一…就…）=when (or as soon as) +S. + V.
⑦ Of one’s own = -ing （自己…的）=-ed by oneself
E.g.: He showed me a picture of his own painting.
⑧ Make a point of –ing （必定，重视）= make it a point to ~
E.g.: He makes a point of calling on me on New Year’s Day.
⑨ Be on (or upon) the point of –ing （正要）= be just about to ~
6. 如果－ing形式在句中充当状语和补语，那么它一定是现在分词。
如果－ing形式在句中充当主语、宾语、同位语，那么它一定是动名词
二、分词
不管是现在分词还是过去分词作状语，如果单独作状语，其逻辑主语必须和主句的主语一致。分词作状语通常可以转换成一个相应的状语从句，如果状语从句中的谓语动词为被动结构，就用过去分词；如果状语从句中的谓语动词为主动结构，就用现在分词。有时为了强调，分词前可带连词when， while， if， though， as if，unless等一起作状语，以便使句子的意思更清楚、更连贯。例如：
Working hard （If you work hard）， you will succeed.
分词或分词短语作状语时，可以表示时间、原因、让步、条件、方式或伴随状况。通常可转换成相应的状语从句；表示方式或伴随状况的可以转换成并列句或非限制性定语从句。
在复合宾语中，用现在分词作宾补，说明宾语是动作的发出者，形成逻辑上的主谓关系；用过去分词作宾补，表示宾语是动作的承受者，构成逻辑上的动宾关系。例如：
There was so much noise that the speaker couldn't make himself heard.
有些不及物动词的过去分词作定语，并不表示被动的意思而是表示完成。这类过去分词常作前置修饰语。例如：
There are a lot of fallen leaves in autumn.
常用的这一类词有：fallen， faded， returned，retired， risen， grown up，vanished等。
分词作后置定语可分为限制性（紧跟在所修饰的中心词之后）和非限制性（用逗号与其所修饰的中心词分开）两种，其作用分别相当于一个限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。例如：
The funds raised （= which have been raised） are mainly used for helping the homeless. 分词作定语既可以放在所修饰的词之前，作前置定语，也可以放在所修饰的词后面，作后置定语。其作用相当于一个定语从句。例如：
1. _______ at in his way, the situation doesn’t seem so desperate. (2007)
A. Looking B. Looked C. Being looked D. To look
2. _______ at in this way, the present economic situation doesn’t seem so gloomy. (2000)
A. Looking B. Looked C. Having looked. D. To look
3. _______ enough time and money, the researchers would have been able to discover more in this field. (1998)
A. Giving B. To give C. Given D. Being given
4. _______ time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player. (1996)
A. Having B. Given C. Giving D. Had
5. _______, he was chosen and trained as a professional swimmer. (1991)
A. He was born and raised in a fishing village
B. Born and raised in a fishing village
C. That he was born and raised in a fishing village
D. In addition to he was born and raised in a fishing village
6. __ D. Having packed ______ their luggage, the group of tourists hurried to the airport. (1991)
A. Packed B. After packed C. Finished packing D. Having packed
7. He noticed the helicopter hovering over the field. Then to his astonishment, he saw a rope ladder _______ out and three men climbing down it. (1995)
A. throwing B. being thrown C. having thrown D. having been thrown
8. Mr. Brown had the report _______ as soon as he finished ________ it. (1990)
A. to be typed, to write B. typed, to write C. being typed, writing D. typed, writing
9. If not ______ with the respect he feels due to him, Jack gets very ill-tempered and grumbles all the time. (2004)
A. being treated B. treated C. be treated D. having been treated
10. There are only ten apples left in the baskets, _______ the spoilt ones. (2006)
A. not counting B. not to count C. don’t count D. having not counted
11. _______ , he can now only watch it on TV at home. (1998)
A. Obtaining not a ticket for the match
B. Not obtaining a ticket for the match
C. NOT having obtained a ticket for the match
D. Not obtained a ticket for the match
12._______ regular training in nursing, she could hardly cope with the work at first. (1994)
A. Not received B. Since receiving C. Having received D. Not having received
13. He wasn’t asked to take on the chairmanship of the society, ______ insufficiently popular with all members. (1996)
A. having considered B. was considered C. was being considered D. being considered
14. Arriving at the bus stop, _______ waiting there. (1996)
A. a lot of people were B. he found a lot of people C. a lot of people D. people were found
15. Most of the artists ________ to the party were from South Africa.
A. invited B. to invite C. being invited D. had been invited
16. There seemed little hope that the explorer, _________ in the tropical forest, would find his way through it.
A. to be deserted B. having deserted C. to have been deserted D. having been deserted
17. The first textbooks_ written ______ for teaching English as a foreign language came out in the 16th century.
A. having written B. to be written C. being written D. written
18. Cleaning women in big cities usually get ___. paid ____ by the hour.
A. pay B. paying C. paid D. to pay
19. The directors discussed the project that they would like to see it __ carried out ______ the next year.
A. carry out B. carrying out C. carried out D. to carry out
20. The murderer was brought in, with his hands___ tied _____ behind his back.
A. being tied B. having tied C. to be tied D. tied
21.The speaker raised his voice but still couldn’t make himself ___ heard
_____.
A. hear B. to hear C. hearing D. heard
22. When I entered the theatre, I saw him _ seated _______ in the first row.
A. sit down B. sat C. seated D. seating
23. If you have a book in front of your face, you can feel the air ___ moving _____ against your face.
A. moving B. moved C. be moved D. to move
24. “Can’t you read?” Mary said ______ to the notice.
A. angrily pointing B. and point angrily C. angrily pointed D. and angrily pointing
25. With the boy __ leading _____ the way, the soldiers managed to walk through the forest.
A. to lead B. led C. leading D. to be leading
26. Before he came to London, he had never heard a single English word ___ spoken ______.
A. speaking B. speak C. spoken D. to speak
27. The program was so exciting that the children kept their eyes ___ fixed ______ on the screen.
A. fixed B. to fix C. to be fixed D. fixing
28. The captain placed the flag over the boy, leaving only his face _ uncovered _______.
A. uncover B. uncovering C. to be uncovered D. uncovered
29. She was very glad to see her child well ___ taken care of ______.
A. take care of B. taken care of C. to take care of D. taking care of
三、动名词
1. He resented ________ to wait. He expected the minister ________ him at once. (1995)
A. to be asked, to see B. being asked, to see C. to be asked, seeing D. being asked, seeing
2. Mr. Brown had the report _______ as soon as he finished _______ it. (1990)
A. to be typed, to write B. typed, to write C. being typed, writing D. typed, writing
3. The mother was afraid to let the boy _______ the tree. (1990)
A. to risk climbing B. risk climbing C. to risk to climb D. risk to climb
4. What’s the chance of _______ a general election this year? (2005)
A. there being B. there to be C. there be D. there going to be
5. Though her father never approved of ________ to drama school, she became a well-known actress. (1991)
A. going B. her to go C. her going D. her go
6. The meeting was put off because we _______ a meeting without John. (2005)
A. objected having B. were objected to having C. objected to have D. objected to having
7. The membership card entitled him ________ certain privileges in the club. (1998)
A. on B. in C. at D. to
8. I don’t like ______ bills but when I do get them I like ___ hem promptly. (1992)
A. to get, payiing B. getting, to pay C. to get, to pay D. getting, paying
9. I never regretted _______ offer, for it was not where my interest lay. (1993)
A. not to accept B. not having accepted C. having not accepted D. not accepting
10. In international matches, prestige is so important that the only thing that matters is to avoid _______ A. from being beaten B. being beated C. beating D. to be beaten
11. Charles Babbage is generally considered _________ the first computer.
A. to have invented B. inventing C. to be inventing D. having invented
12. Would you mind _________ your TV a little, please?
A. turn off B. turning off C. to turn down D. turning down
13. People couldn’t help ________ the foolish emperor.
A. laugh at B. to laugh at C. laughing at D. laughing on
14. This text needs _______.
A. improvement B. improve C. improving D. improved
15. —What do think of the novel?
—Oh, excellent. It’s worth ________ a second time.
A. to read B. to be read C. reading D. being read
16. The tiger was lucky that it just missed ________.
A. catching B. to be caught C. being caught D. to catch
17. Green looked around and caught a man ________ his hand into the pockets of a passenger.
A. put B. to be putting C. to put D. putting
18. In order to gain a bigger share in the international market, all state-run companies are striving _______ their products more competitive.
A. to make B. making C. to have made D. having made
19. We agreed _______ here but but so far he hasn’t turned yet.
A. having met B. meeting C. to meet D. to have meet
20. Mr. James made up his mind to devote all he had to _______ some schools for poor children.
A. set up B. setting up C. have set up D. having set up
21. Friendship is just like money; easier made than ________.
A. kept B. to be kept C. keeping D. being kept
22. I really appreciate _________ to relax with you on this nice place.
A. to have had time B. having time C. to have time D. to having time
23. John pretended ________ me when I passed by.
A. not to see B. not seeing C. to not see D. having not seen
24. In some parts of Paris, missing a bus means _______ for another hour.
A. waiting B. to wait C. wait D. to be waiting
四、独立主格结构
1. 当状语从句的主语与主句的主语不是指同一个对象时，可用独立主格结构取代状语从句，但不再保留连词。如：
After class was over (=Class being over / Class over), the students soon left the classroom.下课后，学生很快离开了课室。
2. 在下列两种情况下，独立主格结构中的being（或having been）不能省略：
(1) 独立主格的逻辑主语是代词时。如：
It being Sunday, we went to church.因为是星期天，我们去了做礼拜。
(2) 在There being＋名词的结构中。如：
There being no bus, we had to go home on foot.因为没有公共汽车，所以我们不得不步行回家。
3. 在“名词（或代词）＋介词短语”构成的独立主格结构中，一般不用形容词性物主代词和冠词。如：
Miss Smith entered the classroom, book in hand.史密斯先生走进了课室，手里拿着一本书。
比较with的复合结构：Miss Smith entered the classroom, with a book in his hand.
4. 独立主格结构没有所有格形式。如：
The chief-editor arriving, we began the meeting. 主编来了，我们开始开会。
比较动名词复合结构：
The chief-editor’s arriving made us very surprised.
5. 独立主格结构作时间或原因状语时，可用完成时，表示该动作发生在谓语之前。如：
The listeners having taken their seats, the concert began.听众坐好后，音乐会开始了。
Tom having been late over and over, his boss was very disappointed.由于汤姆一再迟到，他的老板非常失望。
1. Time _______ , the celebration will be held as scheduled. (2003)
A. permit B. permitting C. permitted D. permits
2. There _______ nothing more for discussion, the meeting came to an end half an hour earlier. (2000)
A. to be B. to have been C. being D. be
3. ___ There being _____ no cause for alarm, the old man went back to his bedroom. (1996)
A. There was B. Since C. Being D. There being
4. The tape recorder ____. being ____ out of order, the students did not know what to do. (1990)
A. was B. being C. has been D. was being
5. The country’s chief exports are coal, cars and cotton goods, cars __ being _____ the most important of these. (1994)
A. have been B. are C. being D. are being
6. All things _ considered ______, the planned trip will have to be called off.
A. considered B. be considered C. considering D. having considered
7. ____ Other things being equal ____, a man who expresses himself effectively is sure to be successful more rapidly than a man whose command of language is poor.
A. Other things to be equal
B. Were other things equal
C. Other things being equal
D. Other things are equal
8. All fights _______ because of the typhoon, many passengers could do nothing but wait.
A. had been cancled B. have been cancled C. were canceled D. having been canceled
9. After the Arab States won independence, great emphasis was laid on expanding education, with girls as well as boys__ being encouraged _____ to go to school.
A. to be encouraged B. being encouraged C. been encouraged D. be encouraged
10. _______, a manager who expresses himself effectively is sure to win the staff’s trust more rapidly than a man whose command of language is poor.
A. Other things to be equal
B. Were other things to be equal
C. Other things being equal
D. Other things are equal
11. _ All being well _______, the job will be finished in five days.
A. All is well B. All are well C. All being well D. All been well
12. The table__ set _____ , they began to play cards.
A. setting B. set C. having set D. being set
13. The earthquake_ having destroy _______ everything, they lost their family members.
A. has destroyed B. destroyed C. destroying D. having destroyed
14. He rushed into the room, his eyes aflame _________.
A. his eyes are aflame B. his eyes be aflame C. his eyes aflame D. his eyes were aflame
15. _. There being nothing to do _______, we went home.
A. There being nothing to do
B. There is nothing to do
C. There nothing to do
D. There be nothing to do
五、状语从句
♠状语从句的省略
状语从句同时具备下列两个条件:①主句和从句的主语一致，或从句主语为it；②从句主要动词是be的某种形式。从句中的主语和be动词常可省略。例如：
When ( the museum is ) completed , the museum will be open to the public next year .
He’ll go to the seaside for his holiday if (it is ) possible.
另外，比较状语从句经常省略。例如：
I’m taller than he (is tall ).
The higher the temperature (is), the greater the pressure (is ).
就状语从句而言,有时为了使语言言简意赅,常常将状语从句进行"简化"。状语从句的"简化"现象在口语中较为普遍,而且在高考中的复现率也较高。因此,有必要对其进行全面、透彻的了解。
状语从句的"简化"现象常存在于以下五种状语从句中:①由if, unless等引导的条件状语从句;②由although, though, even if / though等引导的让步状语从句;③由when, while, as, before, after, until / till等引导的时间状语从句;④由as, as if等引导的方式状语从句;⑤由as, than等引导的比较状语从句。下面针对这五种情形作一归纳。
when, while和as的区别
when引导的从句的谓语动词可以是延续性的动词，又可以是瞬时动词。并且when有时表示“就在那时”。
While引导的从句的谓语动作必须是延续性的，并强调主句和从句的动作同时发生（或者相对应）。并且while有时还可以表示对比。
As表示“一边……一边”，as引导的动作是延续性的动作，一般用于主句和从句动作同时发生；as也可以强调“一先一后。
as when while都表示主、从句动作同时发生，三者差异如下：
表示“一边。。。一边＂的意思
as 强调两个动作同时进行，并表示对比时
用于发生时间较短时
when
1、还可以表示从句动词的动作在主几句动词的动作＂之前 ＂或＂之后＂发生。
2、when＝and then; at that moment (正在那个时候)
while 1、用于时间较长时
2、 强调两个动作同时进行，并表示对比时
有时这三个连词可以互换，有时不可以。
2.由before和after引导的时间状语从句。
注意before引导的从句不再用否定式的谓语，并且当before引导的从句位于主句之后，有时译成“就，才”。还要注意主句和从句之间的时间关系。当主句用将来时，从句总是用现在时；如果before引导的从句谓语用的是过去时，则主句动词多用过去完成时，这样以便体现动作发生的先后。After表示主句动作发生在从句动作之后。主句和从句的动作的时间关系正好与before引导的从句相反。例如：
It will be four days before they come back. 他们要过四天才能回来。
till和until一般情况下两者可以互换，但是在强调句型中多用until。并且要注意的是：如果主句中的谓语动词是瞬时动词时，必须用否定形式；如果主句中的谓语动词是延续性动词时，用肯定或否定形式都可以，但表达的意思不同。例如：
I didn't go to bed until（till） my father came back.直到我父亲回来我才上床睡觉。
It was not until the meeting was over that he began to teach me English.直到散会之后他才开始教我英语。
since引导的从句的谓语动词可以是延续性的动词，又可以是瞬时动词。一般情况下，从句谓语动词用一般过去时，而主句的谓语动词用现在完成时。但在It is ＋时间＋since从句的句型中，主句多用一般现在时。例如：
I have been in Beijing since you left. 自从你离开以来，我一直在北京了。
Where have you been since I last saw you? 自上次我和你见面以后，你到哪里去了？
It is four years since my sister lived in Beijing. 我妹妹不在北京住有四年了。
1. It is since从。。。以来多长时间了(因为since +从句或名词，表示一段时间)
It is five years since we met last time.从我们上次见面已经五年了。
2. It is +before…(。。。才)
It was a long time before I went to sleep again.
过了很长时间我才睡着。
It was an hour before(＝until) the police arrived.
过了一个小时，警察才来。
hardly(scarcely, rarely)…when / before, no sooner…than相当于as soon as之意。主句用过去完成时，从句用一般过去时。当hardly, scarcely, rarely和no sooner位于句首时，主句应用倒装语序。例如：
He had no sooner arrived home than he was asked to start on another journey. 他刚到家，就被邀请开始另一旅程。
6.由by the time引导的时间状语从句。
注意时态的变化：在一般情况下，如果从句的谓语动词用一般过去时，主句的谓语动词用过去完成时；如果主句的谓语动词用一般现在时，主句的谓语动词用将来完成时。例如：
By the time you came back, I had finished this book.到你回来时，我已经写完这本书了。
By the time you come here tomorrow, I will have finished this work. 你明天来这儿的时候，我将已经完成此工作了。
anywhere本身是个副词，但是，常可以引导从句，相当于连词，意思相似于wherever, anywhere引导的从句可位于主句之前，也可以位于主句之后。 而wherever本身就是个连词，表示“在何处，无论何处”。例如：
Wherever the sea is , you will find seamen.有海就有海员。
_难点——because , since , as , for,辨析
1） because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或since。
I didn’t go, because I was afraid.
Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.
2） 由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
He is absent today, becaus e / for he is ill.
He must be ill, for he is absent today.
3.比较：so和such
其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so 是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。 so 还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little(这四个形容词表多或表少时)连用，形成固定搭配。
so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many / few flowers such nice flowers
so much / little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people
（ so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。）
so…that与such…that之间的转换既为so与such之间的转换。
The boy is so young that he can’t go to school.
He is such a young boy that he can’t go to school
难点
+形容词或副词
+形+a(an)+单数可数名词
so +many 或few+复数可数名词+that
+much或little+不可数名词
so that ,such…that 都可以in order that两者皆可引导目的状语从句和结果状语从句，
当他们引导目的状语从句时，从句的谓语里常常有can, could, may, might, will, would等次。
so +adj或adv.+ that， such +n.+ that 以上两种句型都表示结果,其中so为副词,后接形容词，副词原型，当可数名词前有many, few；不可数名词前有much, little修饰时，应采用句型：so many (few, much, little )+n. 。such为形容词, 后只能接名词。这名词既可以地可数的，也可以是不可数的。如果这名词是可数,单数,则必须在名词前加冠词a(an). 常见的形式是:such a (beautiful)garden, such(nice)people.
although, though 辨析
although 不能though 那样用作副词, 放在句末表示强调时要用even though.
1。He is looking fit, though.
但是,他看上去很健康. 考点
2。Even though I didn’t under a word, I kept smiling.
尽管我一个字也不懂，我还是一直微笑着。
3。He is quite experienced, he is young, though.
尽管他很年轻，他很有经验。
as, (just) as…so…引导的方式状语从句通常位于主句后，但在(just) as…so…结构中位于句首，这时as从句带有比喻的含义，意思是"正如…"，"就像"，多用于正式文体，例如：
1。Always do to the others as you would be done by.
你希望人家怎样待你，你就要怎样待人。
2。As water is to fish, so air is to man.
我们离不开空气，犹如鱼儿离不开水。
2. If you explained the situation to your solicitor, he _______ able to advise you much better than I can. (2005)
A. would be B. will have been C. was D. were
3. He asked me to lend him some money, which I agreed to do, _________ that he paid me back the following week. (2005)
A. on occasion B. on purpose C. on condition D. only if
4. ________ enough time and money, the researchers would have been able to discover more in this field. (1998)
A. Giving B. To give C. Given D. Being given
5.You won’t get a loan _______ you can offer some security. (1996)
A. lest B. in case C. unless D. other than
6. _______ time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player. (1996)
A. Having B. Given C. Giving D. Had
7. _______ I was very much mistaken, there was something wrong with Louise. (1995)
A. Unless B. As C. Though D. Since
8. ________ their policy can be changed the future for that country will be indeed bleak. (1993)
A. Even if B. Unless C. Now that D. As long as
9. We could go to a concert _______ you’d prefer to visit a museum. (1992)
A. if B. because C. unless D. since
10. _______ dull he may be, he is certainly a very successful top executive. (2006)
A. Although B. Whatever C. As D. However
11. _______, Mr. Wells is scarcely in sympathy with the working class. (2006)
A. Although he is a socialist B. Even if he is a socialist
C. Being a socialist D. Since he is a socialist
12. ________ I like economics, I like sociology much better. (2003)
A. As much as B. So much C. How much D. Much as
13. Fool ______ Jane is, she could not have done suc a thing. (2002)
A. who B. as C. that D. like
14. ________ I sympathize, I can’t really do very much to help them out of the difficulties. (2001)
A. As long as B. As C. While D. Even
15. Even as a girl, ________ to be her life, and theater audiences were to be her best teacher. (2001)
A. performing by Melissa were
B. it was known that Melissa’s performance were
C. knowing that Melissa’s performances were
D. Melissa knew that performing was
16. _______ he always tries his best to complete it on time. (1999)
A. However the task is hard B. However hard the task is
C. Though hard the task is D. Though hard is the task
17. Much as ________, I couldn’t lend him the money because I simply didn’t have that much spare cash. (1999)
A. I would have liked to B. I would like to have
C. I should have to like D. I should have liked to
18. _______ he needed money for a new car, he decided not to borrow it from the bank. (1998)
A. Much as B. Much though C. As much D. Though much
19. _______, he is ready to accept suggestions from different sources.(1997)
A. Instead of his contributions B. For all his notable contributions
C. His making notable contributions D.However his notable contributions
20._______ the Atlantic Ocean cross the equator, the trade winds cause a flow of water to the west. (1991)
A.That B. When C. Where D. Though
21. The experiment requires more money than _________ . (2002)
A. have been put in B. being put in C. has been put in D. to be put in
22. Intellect is to the mind _______ sight is to the body. (2001)
A. what B. as C. that D. like
23. Language belongs to each member of the society, to the cleaner _______ to the professor. (1998)
A. as far as B. the same as C. as much as D. as long as
24. Come and see me whether ______. (1997)
A. you are convenient
B. you will be convenient
C. it is convenient to you
D. it will be convenient to you
25. When I arrived at the meeting, the first speaker _______ and the audience _______. (1992)
A. had finished speaking… were clapping B. had finished speaking… had clapped
C. finished speaking…clapped D. finished speaking… were clapping
26. Barry had an advantage over his mother _____he could speak Frennch. (2001)
A. since that B. in that C. at that D. so that
27. She did her work _______ her manager had instructed. (2002)
A. as B. until C. when D. though
28. Does Alan like hamburgers? (2003)
Yes. So much _______ that he eats them almost every day.
A. for B. as C. to D. so
29. Loudspeakers were fixed in the hall so that everyone _______ an opportunity to hear the speech. (2006)
A. ought to have B. must have C. may have D. should have
30. It was as a physician that he represented himself, and ______ he was warmly received. (1997)
A. as such B. such as C. as that D. so that
31. _________quite recently, most mothers in Britain did not take paid work outside the home.
A. Before B. Until C. From D. Since
32._________, Alexander Graham Bell was still a young man.
A. He invented the telephone
B. The telephone was invented
C. His inventions of the telephone
D. When he invented the telephone
33. The small greenish flowers of the American elm tree appear in the spring, _________.
A. is grown long before the leaves
B. long before the leaves grow
C. the leaves before growing long
D. the growth of leaves before long is
34.________, heat is produced.
A. The mixing together of certain chemicals
B. Whenever certain chemicals are mixed together
C. Certain chemicals mixed together
D. That certain chemicals are mixed together
35. I was advised to arrange for insurance__I needed medical treatment.
A. nevertheless B. although C. in case D. so that
36. _________do not have webbed feet, gallinules are excellent swimmers.
A. They B. Even though they C. That they D. It is when they
37. Someone called me up in the middle of the night, but they hung up __________ I could answer the phone.
A. as B. since C. before D. until
38. ________, he does get annoyed with her sometimes.
A. Although much he likes her
B. Much although he likes her
C. As he likes her much
D. Much as he likes her
39. You see the lightening________ it happens, but you hear the thunder later.
A. the instant B. for an instant C. on the instant D. in an instant
40. The WTO can’t live up to its name ________it doesn’t include a country that is home to one fifth of mankind.
A. as long as B. while C. if D. even though
41. _________the Atlantic Ocean crosses the equator, the trade winds causes a flow of water to the west.
A. Where B. And C. That D. At
42. Nails protect the ends of human figures and toes ________protect the toes of most other vertebrates.
A. claws B. as claws C. as claws do D. so do claws
43. _________, glasses can correct most sight defects in healthy eyes.
A. When well fitted B. Well fitted when C. Well fitted if D. If well fitted when
44. I have kept the portrait _________ I can see it every day, as it always reminds me of my university days in London.
A. which B. where C. whether D. when
45. I’ve already told you that I am going to buy it, ________.
A. however much it costs
B. however does it cost much
C. how much does it cost
D. no matter how it costs
46. Although he knew little about the large amount of work done in the field, he succeeded ________ other more well-informed experiments failed.
A. which B. that C. what D. where
47. I took no notice of him, _________he flew into a rage.
A. for that B. so that C. in that D. but that
六、定语从句
注意：1. 含有介词的动词短语一般不拆开使用，如：look for, look after, take care of等
(1) This is the watch which/that I am looking for. (T＝正确)
(2) This is the watch for which I am looking. (F＝错误)
2. 若介词放在关系代词前，关系代词指人时用whom，不可用who或者that；指物时用which，不能用that；关系代词是所有格时用whose
关系代词（一般情况下）that 可用who ,whom 和which在从句做主语，谓动词的宾语，但是不能做介词的宾语
which指物，在从句中作主语，谓语或宾语；
who在从句中作主语；
whom在从句中宾语；
where在从句中修饰表地点的名词，做地点状语；
when在从句中通常修饰表时间的名词，做时间状语；
why在从句中做原因状语，先行词通常是"reason"
有时why也可用for+which代替。
判断关系代词与关系副词
方法一： 用关系代词，还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。不及物动词后面无宾语，就必须要求用关系副词或者是介词加关系代词；而及物动词后接宾语，则要求用关系代词。例如：
This is the mountain village where I stayed last year.
I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.
方法二： 准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分(主、谓、宾、定、状)，也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。例1. Is this museum ___ you visited a few days ago?
A. where B. that C. on which D. the one
例2. Is this the museum ____ the exhibition was held?
A. where B. that C. on which D. the one答案：
例1 D，例2 A
例1变为肯定句：This museum is ___ you visited a few days ago.例2变为肯定句：This is the museum ___ the exhibition was held.
在句1中，is后应跟表语，只有the one可以，而后面的you visited a few days ago则做one的定语从句。
而句2中, 主、谓、宾俱全，从句部分为句子的状语表地点，既可用副词where，又因 in the museum词组，可用介词in + which 引导地点状语。而此题中，介词on 用的不对，所以选A。
关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分，先行词在从句中做主、定、宾语时，选择关系代词 (who, whom, that, which, whose)；
先行词在从句中做状语时，应选择关系副词( where 地点状语，when 时间状语，why 原因状语) 。
由as, which 引导的非限定性定语从句，as和which可代整个主句，相当于and this或and that。As一般放在句首，which在句中。
As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us
(1）as 引导的定语从句可置于句首，而which不可。
(2）as 代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时，从句中的谓语必须是系动词；若为行为动词，则从句中的关系代词只能用which.。
（十）关系代词that 的用法
(错)The tree, that is four hundred years old, Is very famous here.
We depend on the land from which we get our food.
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
(a) 在there be 句型中，只用that，不用which。
(b) 在不定代词，如：anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时，只用that，不用which。
(c) 先行词有the only, the very, the same, the last, just修饰时，只用that。
(d) 先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时，只用that。.
A. which B. that C. who D. whom
A. whose B. as C. what D. that
3. I’ve never been o Lhasa, but that’s the city ________. (1999)
C. which I like to visit mostly
4. I have never been to London, but that is the city _______. (1997)
C. which I like to visit mostly
D. where I’d like most to visit
5. There is no one in the world _______. (1991)
B. that has ever made mistakes
D. that sometimes makes mistakes
6. Only take such clothes _______ really necessary. (1994)
A. as were B. as they are C. as they were D. as are
A. by which B. that C. in where D. where
A. which B. where C. whether D. what
10. The party, ________ I was the guest of honour, was extremely enjoyable. (2006)
A. by which B. for which C. to which D. at which
11. That is the robber ________ arrest a reward was offered. (1990)
A. for whom B. for whose C. about whom D. about whose
A. where B. of whose C. whose D. which
A. which B. it C. that D. what
A. which B. what C. that D. they
A. I think which is B. that I think is C. which I think is D. which I think it is
16. She managed to save ________ she could out of her wages to help hher brother. (2002)
A. how little money B. so little money C. such little money D. what little money
A. which B. before C. that D. when
A. where B. of which C. during which D. that
A. when B. which C. of which D. that
20. The knee is the joint _________ the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg.
A. when B. where C. why D. which
A. as B. when C. because D. that
A. which B. its C. whose D. whose
A. who died B. died C. while died D. he died
24. Most crocodiles will eat anything ________ capture and overpower.
A. can B. they can C. which can D. and
1. ________, he was chosen and trained as a professional swimmer. (1991)
A. He was born and raise in a fishing village
B. Born and raised in a fishing village
C.That he was born and raised in a fishing village
D. In addition to he was born and raised in a fishing village
2. He’s _________ as a “bellyyacher”—he’s always complaining about some thing. (1999)
A. who is known B. whom is known C. what is known D. which is known
3. There is no doubt ________ the company had made the right decision on the sales project. (2001)
A. why B. that C. whether D. when
A. however B. whichever C. whatever D. wherever
A. that B. there C. what D. it
6. The team can handle whatever _______. (1997)
A. that needs handling B. which needs handling C. it needs handling D. needs to be handled
7. We can assign the task to _________ is capable and trustworthy. (1994)
A. whomever B. who C. whom D. whoever
8. He is a good student except ________ he is sometimes careless.
A. who B. that C. which D. that
9. ________ he always thinks of is ________ he can do more for the country.
A. What … how B. What … what C. That … that D. How … how
10. _________ nothing to do with us.
A. What he did is B. What he has done is C. What did he do has D. What he has done has
B. who, as a leading astronomer
12. An Olympic marathon is 26 miles and 385 yards, ________ approximately from Marathon to Athens.
A. the distance is B. that the distance is C. is that the distance D. the distance
13. The reason I have to go is _______ if I don’t.
A. that she will be disappointed
B. because she will be disappoited
C. on account of her being disappointed
D. that she will be disappointed
14. My friend wouldn’t tell me ________ his new car.
15. From the room you can see _______ hard he works and ________ a simple life he leads.
A. what; how B. what; what C. how; what D. how; how
其句型为“only +状语+部分倒装”。
Only then did he realize his mistakes .
如置于句首的only修饰主语，则不用倒装结构。
Only Mother can understand me .
never, not, hardly, scarcely seldom, little, not until, not only…but also, no sooner …than, hardly (scarcely)…when等。
用在as（尽管）引导的让步状语从句中 Proud as the nobles are ,he is afraid to see me .
以疑问词或疑问词修饰的名词作主语的疑问句要用正常语序。
Which boy broke this glass?
在以here, there, now, then, in, away, up down等副词开头的句子中 Here is a letter for you.
这儿有你一封信。
Look, there he comes! 看，他来了。
虚拟语气条件从句中 Were they here, they would help us .
他们要是在这儿，他们会帮助我们的。
Had I been informed earlier. I could have done something.
我要是早得到通知，我就能干事了。
Should you fail, take more pain and try again.
万一你失败了，就要更加刻苦，重新再干。 把从句中if省略将were，had或should放在主语的前面。
在频度状语often, always, many a time等开头的句子中 Often did we warn them not to do so.
我们曾多次警告他们不要这样做。
在方式状语thus开头的句子中及程度状语so放句首 Thus ended his life.这样结束了他的生命。
So loudly did he speak that even people in the next room could hear him .
介词短语作状语，放在句首 In the middle of the room stood a little girl.
在强调表语的句子中 Such was Albert Einstein, a simple man of great achievements.
阿尔伯特•曼因斯坦就是这样一个人，一个纯朴而又取得巨大成就的人。
. 主语＋表示看法、意见等动词＋so
1._______ you ________ further problems with your printer, contact your dealer for advice. (2005)
A. If / had B. Have / had C. Should / have D. In case / had
A. Had it not been B. Hadn’t it been C. Was it not D. Were it not
3. ___ B. Had he not been taken good care of _____, he would not have recovered so quickly. (1995)
A. Hadn’t he been taken good care of B. Had he not been taken good care of
C. Had not he been taken good care of D. Had he been not taken good care of
4. ___ Had I realized _____ you were busy, I wouldn’t have bothered you with my questions. (1994)
A. If I realized B. Had I realized C. I realized that D. As I realized
A. Only if , will B. If only, would C. Should, will D. Unless, would
6. Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than ___. does ______ Eastern Nebraska. (1996)
A. in B. it receives in C. does D. it does in
7. He is not under arrest, _ nor have the police placed
_______ any restriction on him. (1995)
A. or the police have placed B. or have the police placed
C. nor the police have placed D. nor have the police placed
A. it does begin B. when it begins C. does it begin D. before it begins
A. I would, I would be B. would I, I would be C. would I, would I be D. I would, would I be
10. So hardly ________ in the car accident that he had to stay in hospital for a few months. (1994)
A. did he injure B. injured him C. was he injured D. he was injured
11. No sooner ___ had the game begun_____ than it began to rain heavily.
A. the game began B. has the game begun C. did the game begin D. had the game begun
12. In each room __ are ______ ten students.
A. are B. is C. there is D. there was
A. Jumped down the burglar B. Down the burglar jumped
C. The burglar jumping down D. Down jumped the burglar
14. Then __ came the hour ______ we had been looking forward to .
A. came the hour B. the hour came C. comes the hour D. the hour is coming
15. Not until the early years of the 19th century __ did man know ______ what heat is.
A. man did know B. man know C. didn’t man know D. did man know
i. This is an illness that can result in total blindness _________ left untreated. (2000)
A. after B. if C. since D. unless
2. This missile is designed so that once _________ nothing can be done to retrieve it. (1995)
A. fired B. being fired C. they fired D. having fired
A. who B. if C. while D. though
4. In other words, all mammals, ________ their size, breathe once for every four heartbeats. (1991)
A. whatever B. regardless C. however D. according
5. The research requires more money than ________. (2007)
A. have been put in B. has been put in C. being put in D. to be put in
6. The experiment requires more money than ________. (2002)
A. have been put in B. being put in C. has been put in D. to be put in
A. exists B. exist C. existing D. to exist
8. The indoor swimming pool seems to be a great deal more luxurious than ________. (1998)
A. is necessary B. being necessary C. to be necessary D. it is necessary
9. The central provinces have floods in some years, and ________. (2000)
A. drought in others B. droughts are others C. while other droughts D. others in drought
A. hunted B. hunting C. that hunted D. are hunted
A. do B. hear C. do them D. hearing it
12. James wanted to ride his bike in the street, but his mother told him _______.
A. not to B. not to do C. not do it D. don’t
13. —I’ll be away on a business trip. Would you mind looking after my dog?
A. I’ve no time B. I’d rather not C. I’d like it D. I’d be happy to
14. The Greens bought a new house but ________ will need a lot of work before they can move in.
15. Few pleasures can equal ________ of cool drink on such a hot day.
A. some B. any C. that D. those
16. If you go to the concert tonight, ________.
A. I also go B. So do I C. So will I D. So I will
17. I think we have finished our work earlier than ________.
A. he B. he will C. he does D. he has
18. I ______ and will never ask such a silly question. .
A. have never B. never C. have asked never D. have never asked
19. Helen said that it was likely to snow tomorrow and I said that ________.
A. I hoped to B. I hoped so C. it was evident so D. it seemed so
二、十六种时态的谓语形势
a) _________ conscious of my moral obligations as a citizen. (2005)
A. I was and always will be B. I have to be and always will be
C. I had been and always will be D. I have been and always will be
A. has found B. was finding C. had found D. would find
A. betrayed…take B. had betrayed…took C. has betrayed…took D. has betrayed…take
4. When I arrived at the meeting, the first speaker _________ and the audience _________. (1992)
A. had finished speaking, were clapping B. had finished speaking, had clapped
C. finished speaking, clapped D. finished speaking, were clapping
5. Jack ________ from home for two days now, and I am going to worry about his safety. (2003)
A. has been missing B. has been missed C. had been missing D. was missed
A. had been pointing B. have been pointing C. were pointing D. pointed
7. James has just arrived, but I don’t know he ________ until yesterday. (2005)
A. will come B. was coming C. had been coming D. came
A. are to leave B. are leaving C. is leaving D. leave
9. How can I ever concentrate if you _______ continually_________ me with silly questions? (1997)
A. have…interrupted B. had…interrupted C. are…interrupting D. were…interrupting
A. has worked B. works C. has been working D. is working
11. The committee has anticipated the problems that ________in the road construction project. (2007)
A. arise B. will arise C. arose D. have arisen
12. He ought to stop work; he has a headache because he ________ too long.
A. has been reading B. had read C. is reading D. read
13. —“May I speak to your manager Mr. Green at five o’clock tonight?”
—“I’m sorry. Mr. Green _______ to a conference long before then.”
A. will have gone B. had gone C. would have gone D. has gone
A. are to challenge B. may be challenged C. have been challenged D. are challenged
A. would be B. has been C. had been D. would have been
16. She came back late, ________ which time all the guest had already left.
A. after B. by C. at D. during
17. Until then, her family ________ from her for six months.
A. didn’t hear B. hasn’t been hearing C. hasn’t heard D. hadn’t heard
A. has witnessed B. was witnessed C. witnessed D. is witnessed
A. are producing B. are produced C. produced D. being produced
20. This kind of glasses produced by experienced craftsmen ________ comfortably.
A. is worn B. wears C. wearing D. are worn
21. The sixth generation computers, with artificial intelligence, ________ and perfected now.
A. developed B. have developed C. are being developed D. will have been developed
22. Sir Williams, who is 78, has made it that much of his collection ________ to the nation.
A. has left B. is to leave C. leaves D. is to be left
23. As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think ________.
A. ought to be said B. must say C. have to be said D. need to say
24. Once environmental damage ________, it takes many years for this system to recover.
A. has done B. is to do C. does D. is done
25. Many years ago, Jim ________ in New York with his uncle for a long period of time.
A. had been living B. had lived C. lived D. has been living
其句型是：句型1: 主语+情态动词+动词原形+其它，情态动词否定形式+主语?
句型2: 主语+情态动词否定形式+动词原形+其它，情态动词+主语?
而是用上了“never, little, few, hardly, nothing, nobody”等词，这时该陈述句也属于否定句，因此，反意疑问句的后半部分应用肯定疑问式。
二、 反意疑问句中问句部分的动词与陈述部分的动词种类要对应一致。如：
①He has supper at home every day, doesn't he? （不能用hasn't he?）
②They have known the matter, haven't they? （不能用don't they?）
三、 反意疑问句中问句部分的动词在时态上应和陈述部分的时态一致。如：
①They will go to town soon, won't they?
②He works very hard, doesn't he?（不能用didn't he?或won't he?）
四、 反意疑问句的陈述部分含有由un-, im-, in-, dis-, 等否定意义的前缀构成的词语时，陈述部分要视为肯定含义，问句部分用否定形式。如：
①Your father is unhappy, isn't he?（不能用is he?）
②The man is dishonest, isn't he? （不能用is he?）
③It is impossible to learn English without remembering more words, isn't it?（不能用is it ?）
五、反意疑问句的陈述部分带有little, few, never, hardly, seldom等否定意义的词时，问句部分用肯定式。如：
①She never tells a lie, does she?（不用doesn't she?）
②He was seldom late, was he?（不用wasn't he?）
六、反意疑问句的陈述部分为I am……时，问句部分习惯上用aren't I？表示。如：
I am a very honest man, aren't I?
七、反意疑问句的陈述部分为I(We) think(believe, suppose, consider) + that从句时，问句部分的动词及主语与that从句内的动词和主语保持一致。如：
①I think that he has done his best, hasn't he?
②We think that English is very useful, isn't it? （不用don't we?）
①I don't think that you can do it, can you? （不用do I?）
②We don't believe that the news is true, is it? （不用do we?）
九、反意疑问句的陈述部分为非第一人称主语+ think(believe, suppose, consider) + that从句时，问句部分的动词和主语与陈述部分的主句动词和主语保持一致。如：
①They all think that English is very important, don't they? （不用isn't it?）
②He didn't think that the news was true, did he? （不用wasn't/ was it?）
十、反意疑问句的陈述部分为主语+said( told, reported, asked……) + that从句时，问句部分的动词和主语与陈述部分的主句动词和主语保持一致。如：
①They said that you had finished your work, didn't they? （不用hadn't you）
②Kate told you that she would go there, didn't she? （不用wouldn't she?）
十一、陈述部分的主语为不定代词something, anything, nothing, everything时，问句部分的主语用it。如：
①Something is wrong with the computer, isn't it?②Nothing has happened to them, has it?
①Someone has taken the seat, hasn't he?②Everyone has done their best in the game, haven't they?
十三、陈述部分为Let me……时，问句部分习惯上用shall I? 或will you?形式。如：
Let me have a try, shall I?(will you?)
十四、陈述部分为Let us……时，问句部分习惯上用will you?形式。如：
Let us stop to rest, will you?
十五、陈述部分为Let's……时，问句部分习惯上用shall we?形式。如：
Let's go home together, shall we?
十六、陈述部分用上述情况以外的祈使句时，问句部分一般用will you?形式表示请求，用won't you？形式表示委婉请求或邀请。如：
①Do sit down, won't you?/ will you? ②You feed the bird today, will you?
③Please open the window, will you?(won't you?)
十七、陈述部分为否定祈使句时，问句部分一般用will you?形式。如：
Don't make any noise, will you?
十八、陈述部分为There (Here) + be + 主语时，问句部分用动词+there(here)?形式。如：
①There are two cakes on the plate, aren't there? ②Here is a story about Mark Twain, isn't here?
十九、陈述部分用had better +原形动词表示建议时，问句部分用hadn't +主语？形式。
①You'd better tell him about the matter, hadn't you?②We had better do it by ourselves, hadn't we?
二十、陈述部分用used to +主语时，问句部分用didn't + 主语？或usedn't +主语？形式。
①He used to live in the country, didn't he?/usedn't he?
②They used to be good friends, didn't they?/usedn't they?
二十一、陈述部分用must(may, might) + have + V-ed表示推测时，若句中带有明显的过去时间的状语，问句部分动词用过去时形式。如：
①He might have forgotten his pen in the classroom yesterday, didn't he?
②You must have got up late this morning, didn't you?（不用mustn't you?/haven't you?）
二十二、陈述部分用must(may, might) + have + V-ed表示推测时，若句中没有带明显的过去时间的状语，问句部分动词用现在完成时形式。如：
①Everyone must have known the death of the waitress, haven't they? （不用mustn't they?）
②You must have worked there a year ago, didn't you?（不用mustn't you?/ haven't you?）
二十三、陈述部分的主语为从句时，问句部分的主语一般用it代替，如：
①What he said is true, isn't it? （不用didn't he?）
②Where we will build the dam has not been decided yet, has it? （不用won't we?）
二十四、陈述部分的主语为动名词或不定式时，问句的主语用it代替。如：
①To do one good deed is easy for a person, isn't it?②Skating is your favorite sport, isn't it?
1. She would have been more agreeable if she had changed a little bit, __ wouldn’t she _____? (2003)
A. hadn’t she B. hasn’t she C. wouldn’t she D. didn’t she
2. When you have finished with that videotape, don’t forget to put it in my drawer, ________? (1997)
A. do you B. will you C. don’t you D. won’t you
3. Do help yourself to some fruit, ________ you? (2000)
A. can’t B. don’t C. wouldn’t D. won’t
4. You and I could hardly understand, ________? (1993)
A. could I B. couldn’t you C. couldn’t we D. could we
5. A hibernating animal needs hardly any food all through the winter, ________? (1992)
A. need it B. needn’t it C. does it D. doesn’t it
6. There used to be a petrol station near the park, ________? (2006)
A. didn’t it B. doesn’t there C. usedn’t it D. didn’t there
7. —Don’t bother to drive me back.
—But then you’d have to walk a long way home, ________?
A. do you B. hadn’t you C. wouldn’t you D. would you
8. Let’s prepare for the exam together, ________?
A. can we B. shall we C. don’t we D. shan’t we
9. I don’t think I will bring you much trouble, __________?
A. will I B. won’t I C. do I D. don’t I
10. Someone has left the light on, ________?
A. has he B. hasn’t he C. have they D. haven’t they
A. didn’t he B. couldn’t he C. hadn’t he D. mightn’t he
12. Bob never used to smoke, _________?
A. didn’t he B. usedn’t he C. used he D. does he
13. Go and get some food, ________?
A. don’t you B. shall you C. will you D. can’t you
14. On this occasion, one is not supposed to behave this way, _________?
A. does he B. is he C. are they D. do they
15. I’ll be thirteen tomorrow, _________?
A. am I B. aren’t I C. won’t I D. will I
16. I ought to go with you, _______?
A. did I B. shouldn’t I C. should I D. did I not
17. What a funny boy, ________?
A. aren’t you B. aren’t they C. isn’t he D. is he
a)主格：I，you，he，she，it，we，you，they
b)宾格：me，you，him，her，it，us，you，them
a)形容词性物主代词：my，your，his，her，its，our，your，their
b)名词性物主代词：mine，yours，his，hers，its，ours，yours，theirs
4)相互代词(reciprocal pronoun)：each other，one another
5)指示代词(demonstrative pronoun)：this，that，these，those，it，such，same
6)疑问代词(interrogative pronoun)：who，whom，whose，which，what
7)关系代词(relative pronoun)：who，whom，whose，which，that，as
3. other, another 的用法:
两者均可指人,也可指物,other 意为 "另外",不确指,需要确指时前加定冠词the, the other,,意为 another"另一个":
other: (1)后跟名词(单,复),泛指 "别的,其他的"
the other后跟名词单或数,或后不跟名词, 特指两者中的另一个:
others 后不加名词,泛指另外一些别的人或事物;the others 特指其余所有的人或事物:
泛指三者以上的 "一些"不用加the, 用 "some…. others"的形式:
Some people like it, others not.
nother:
1. Children who stay away from school do ________ for different reasons. (2005)
2. Your ideas, _________, seem unusual to me. (2003)
A. like her B. like hers C. similar to hers D. similar to herself
3. ________ of the twins was arrested, because I saw both at a party last night. (2002)
A. None B. Both C. Neither D. All
4. Bill felt cold _______. (1991)
A. much of the night B. most of the night C. much through the night D. the most of the night
5. If you want to change for a single room, you’ll have to pay ________$15.
A. another B. other C. more D. each
6. Both teams are in hard training; ________ is willing to lose the game.
A. either B. neither C. another D. the other
A. either B.neither C. any D. none
8. We needed a new cupboard for the kitchen. So John made _______ from some wood we had.
A. it B. one C. himself D. another
9. The Greens had three sets of garden tools and seemed to have no use for _________.
A. none B. either C. any D. each
A. it B. one C. that D. another
11. I don’t like ________ when people talk with their mouth full.
How long ago is it that you last saw her? 你上一次看见她是多久以前的事?
基本形式为It is (was) not until…that…。比较：
He didn't come until his wife left. 他妻子走了之后他才来。
→It was not until his wife left that he came. 他妻子走了之后他才来
这类句型不用倒装语序，但若改成Not until…，则要用倒装。如：
Not until his wife left did he come. 他妻子走了之后他才来。
Not until the rain stopped did they start. 直到雨停他们才出发
It might have been John _________ bought a present for Mary yesterday.
A. that B. when C. what D. which
【解析】答案选A，为强调句型，由于句中动词be采用了might have been这一复杂结构，所以许多同学们可能会看不出它是一个强调句型。
It was evening we reached the little town of Winchester.
A. that B. until C. since D. before
) 原句子是现在时或将来时，强调句用It is + 被强调的部分 + that (who)…; 若原句子是过去时，强调句用：It was + 被强调的部分 + that (who)…
(1) Tom and Lucy gave us much help. —It was Tom and Lucy that gave us much help. 正是汤姆和露西给了我们很多的帮助。
(E) 强调一般疑问句中的某一成分时，将强调句中的主句用一般疑问语序。如：
(1) Do you like English?—It is English that you like? 英语就是你喜欢的吗？
(2) Will you go to London?—It is London that you will go to? 你要去的就是伦敦吗？
(F)特殊疑问句中只有疑问词可以被强调。句型为：特殊疑问词+be + it that+…? 如：
(1) What made him so angry?—What is it that made him so angry? 是什么东西使他如此生气？
(2) Why did she cry?—Why was it that she cried? 是什么原因使他哭了起来？
(G) 强调主语时，who 或that后面的谓语形式须与被强调的主语保持一致。如：
(1) Lily speaks Chinese very well. —It is Lily who / that speaks Chinese very well. 李丽的汉语讲得很好。
(2) Children like stories. —It is Children that like stories. 孩子们喜欢故事。
I) 强调句型不用于强调谓语、表语、since, as等引导的原因状语从句。如：
He is better today since he can walk around without my help. 就不能有下列强调形式：
It is better today that he is today since he can walk around without my help. (错)
1. It was not until midnight _________ the snowcapped peak. (1995)
A. that they sighted B. that they did not sight C. did they sight D. had they sighted
3. ________ the train had departed ________ she left the station for home.
A. It is only then…that B. It is only when…what C. It was only that…when D. It was only when…what
4. _________ that should be given priority to.
A. It is the government has decided B. It is only the government has decided
C. It is what the government has decided D. It is only has the government decided
5. —Were all three people in the car injured in the accident?
—No, _______ only the two passengers who get hurt.
A. it was B. there is C. it were D. there was
6. She said she would go and she _________ go.
A. didn’t B. did C. would D. will
7. _________ in the least would he care about it.
8. It is this novel __________ they talked about last week.
9. I wouldn’t let her go out alone________ the world.
01-10-03 19:28 发表于：《新东方》 分类：未分类
我搞了一张新东方出的TOEFL高分语法，现把里面的语法要点COPY出来贡献一下。
要有错误找老鱼哦，不要找我麻烦。
填空题常考结构
一、主句单一原则
任何一个句子中只可能有一个主句。
做题时考生需要首先判断原题中已经给出的句子结构，如果已经有一个主句，那么就绝对不能够再出现另一个主句，除非中间有连接词进行联系。
例1：——, work songs often exhibit the song culture of a people in a fundamental form.
(A) They occur where they are
(B) Occuring where
(C) Where they occur
(D) Where do they occur
分析：空格后面是一个主句，(A)为带有从句的主句，空格后又是主句，有两个主句一定错。
C为地点状语从句，正确(劳动歌曲发生的地方)。
例2: ——Indiana, is in a rich farming and dairy area, it is primarily a diversified industrial center
(A) Fort Wayne
(B) Although Fort Wayne
(C) For wayne is in
(D) Fort Wayne, in
分析：空格后有两个谓语动词但中间没有连接词，由此可知，最后一句话是一个主句，空格处应该有从句引导词，四个选项中只有（B）中although能引导从句，故选（B）。
二、谓语动词专一原则
任何一个句子只可能存在一个谓语动词。
句子中不可能没有谓语动词，也不能多于一个谓语动词(除非中间存在连接词)。
例1：William Walker's mural, “Wall of Respect,”
-----an outdoor wall in Chicago, deals with
social issues.
(A) covers
(B) covers it
(C) which covers
(D) which it covers
分析：空格后的deals with 是谓语动词，A, B是谓语形式, 和deals with 之间没有连接词，可先排除; D 中的it多余，因为在定语从句中which已经作了主语；C构成正确的定语从句
例2：In copper engravings and etchings, -----caused
by the edges of the plate is clearly visible on
the paper.
(A) the impression is
(B) if the impression is
(C) impressions
(D) the impression
分析：题目中的is是谓语，A,B中是谓语重复。C为复数名词，与后面的谓语动词is的数不一致，故也排除。因此选择D，caused.... 修饰impression
三、平行结构
技巧：如果填空题中空格的后面有and, 或者and后面有空格，那么这道题目一定是考察平行结构。
填空题中平行结构出现的形式是：
A and B,
A , B, and C
例1：The technique of recording, classifying, and——
is known as accounting.
(A) an enterprise's transactions summary
(B) the summarizing of an enterprise's
transactions
(C) transactions of an enterprise are
summarized
(D) summarizing the transactions of an
enterprise
分析：空格的后面是and, 一般考平行结构，空格处缺与前面recording、classifying并列的动名词。
四个选项中只有（D）符合条件，故选（D）。
例2：Louis T. Wright, a surgeon, developed
ingenious orthopedic braces, ——, and
supervised the first use of Aureomycin on
human patients.
(A) treating skull fractures that he pioneered in
(B) pioneered in treating skull fractures
(C) which pioneered in treating skull fractures
(D) he was a pioneer in the treatment of skull
fractures
分析：空格后面是and, 空格处缺少和developed、supervised平行的谓语动词，因此选择（B）。
四、宾语从句结构
宾语从句的引导词在前面的主从复合句中已经提到。
这里指出的是填空题中关于宾语从句考的最多的两个结构：
state(陈述，表明)+that
indicate(指明,表明)+that
例1：The quantum theory states ——, such as light,
is given off and absorbed in tiny definite
units called quanta or photons.
(A) energy that
(B) that it is energy
(C) it is energy
(D) that energy
分析：空格前的谓语动词states一般接关系连词that引导的宾语从句，故首先排除C。空格后已有谓语动词，空格不应再出现谓语动词，因此D正确。
例2：Studies of the gravity field of the Earth
indicate——yield when unusual weight is
placed on them.
(A) although its crust and mantle
(B) its crust and mantle to
(C) that its crust and mantle
(D) for its crust and mantle to
分析：空格处显然缺谓语动词indicate的宾语。（A）和（D）不能作宾语，可首先排除。（B）使句子结构混乱、语义不清，因此选择（D），构成宾语从句。
五、介词+ which结构
许多同学在选择which还是介词+which上总是不太明白，这里有一个技巧可以告诉大家。
“which”后面一定加一个缺主语或者宾语的句子，
因为“which”在这个句子中作了宾语或者主语成分。
“介词+ which”后面则跟一个完整的句子，
因为”介词+which”整个结构在定语从句中作状语。
例1：In the United States, a primary election is
a method ---- voters select the nominees
for public office.
(A) that
(B)by which
(C)is that
(D)by those
分析：空格前后都是句子，因此缺从句引导词或连接词，首先排除C和D。
A能够引导从句，但是根据题意，修饰method是不通的。
B是介词+which, 引导定语从句，(大选是一种方法，根据这个方法，选民怎么….)；正确
例2: Croquet is a popular lawn game ------ players
hit wooden balls through wire arches called
wickers.
(A) when
(B) which
(C) is when
(D) in which
分析：空格前后都是完整的句子，空格处缺定语从句引导词，由此首先排除（A）和（C）。但是到底是选择B还是D，则看从句，从句是完整的句子，那么一定选择D, 关系代词which 前应该有介词。
六、in that结构
在表示“原因”概念的引导词中，
because of +名词，
consequently是副词
而“in that”是原因状语的引导词。
例1：Mercury differs from other industrial metals
---- it is a liquid.
(A) whereas
(B) in that
(C) because of
(D) consequently
分析：空格前后都是完整的句子，空格处显然缺从句引导词。C、D不能引导从句，可以首先排除。
根据题意，两个句子之间是因果关系而不是对比关系，故选（B）。in that为复合连词，用来引导原因状语从句。
例2：Hovercraft, or air-cushion vehicles, are unusual
—— travel over land and water on a layer of air.
(A)they
(B)in they
(C)that they
(D)in that they
分析：空格处缺从句引导词和从句主语。A和B缺从句引导词，首先被排除。C一般作宾语从句或定语从句，而句中需要的是状语从句，故也排除。D中in that为连词，引导表原因的状语从句，符合题意（气垫船之所以不同，是因为……），故选D。
这里我们再重申一下，如果选项中出现“介词+which”或者“in that”，那么首先考虑这个选项，如果后面使用的是完整的句子结构，那么这个选项就一定是答案。这种题目平时出现的不多，但是要考的话一定就是重点。
例3：Emily Dickinson's garden was a place ------
great inspiration for her poems.
(A) that she drew
(B) by drawing her
(C) from which she drew
(D) drawn from which
分析：首先看选项C, “介词+which”, 而后面是she drew great inspiration for her poems.是一个完整句子，那么选项C就是答案。
七、what结构
what结构在95.8以后的新题中考的非常多，记住一点：
what=the thing that
例1：The chief foods eaten in any country depend
largely on ----- best in its climate and soil.
(A) it grows
(B) what grows
(C) does it grow
(D) what does it grow
分析：空格前有depend on这个短语，四个选项都是句子，故可判断出空格处为宾语从句。A和C没有从句引导词，故排除，（D）的语序有问题，从句不能用特殊疑问句的倒装形式，故（B）正确。
例2：During the eighteenth century, Little Turtle
was chief of the Miami tribe whose territory
became----is now Indiana and Ohio.
(A) there
(B) where
(C) that
(D) what
分析：空格处缺的词既要引导从句又要作从句主语。四个选项中只有D符合条件。
八、同位语结构
同位语考试形式一：名词作主语，主语同位语
___, __ _, ___ (注意是两个逗号)
例1：The tongue , -----, is an important aid in chewing
and swallowing .
(A) is the chief organ of taste
(B) tasting the organ chiefly
(C) the chief organ of taste
(D) the organ chiefly tastes
分析：空格处显然缺定语或同位语。句中已有谓语动词is, 故先排除A和D。（B）不合题意，故也可排除。（C）是名词短语，适合作主语的同位语，使句子完整，句意正确，故选（C）。
同位语考试形式二：名词作主语，后面的名词是主语同位语，解释说明后面的名词
___, ___ (注意是一个逗号)
例2：A prolific writer of prose and verse, ----of
Native Americans in her novel, Century of
Dishonor.
(A) Helen Hunt Jackson took up the cause
(B) the cause taken up by Helen Hunt Jackson
(C) was Helen Hunt Jackson's cause
(D) the cause that Helen Hunt Jackson took up.
分析：空格前为名词短语，空格后为介词短语，空格处明显缺主语和谓语动词。根据空格前名词短语的意思判断，主语应该是人名而不是指物的名词，故选（A）。
例3：Often very annoying weeds ,-----and act as
hosts to many insect pests.
(A) that crowd out less hardy plants than
goldenrods
(B) crowding out less hardy plants by goldenrods
(C) the goldenrod's crowding out of less hardy
plants
(D) goldenrods crowd out less hardy plants
分析：空格后面是and, 句中缺少与and并列的谓语动词。A只有从句没有主句; B,C分别是分词和名词短语, 无法与动词act并列; D 包含主语的同位语goldenrods和谓语动词crowd。
同位语考试形式三：主谓宾后面出现一个名词，那么名词可以作宾语或者表语的同位语
例4：An Olympic marathon is 26 miles and 385
yards, approximately ---- from Marathon to
Athens.
(A) the distance is
(B) that the distance is
(C) is that the distance
(D) the distance
分析：逗号前为完整的句子，后面如果再接句子一定要有连接词或者从句引导词。A、B、C均为主谓结构，但都没有从句引导词，故排除。D是名词短语作表语同位语，故选（D）。
九、比较结构
比较结构中要注意两点：1、倒装性；2、对称性
例1：Western Nebraska generally receives less
snow than ——eastern Nebraska.
(A) does
(B) in
(C) it does in
(D) in it does
分析：than引导比较状语从句，空格后面是个专有名词，肯定是比较从句的主语，空格处明显缺从句的谓语动词，只有（A）符合条件，故选（A）。注意than eastern Nebraska does 是正确的语序，但是原文中使用了倒装；在比较结构的后面部分中，如果比较从句的主语长，谓语动词短，动词可放到主语前面进行到装。
例2： Hot objects emit----- do cold objects.
(A) rays more than infrared
(B) rays are more infrared than
(C) more than infrared rays
(D) more infrared rays than
分析：emit为及物动词，空格处缺宾语和引导比较从句的than, 只有（D）符合条件。注意空格后为倒装形式，do代替emit以避免重复。此题为常考的句子结构。
比较结构中还需要注意相互比较的必须属于同一种事物
例3：The activities of the international marketing
researcher are frequently much broader than ----.
(A) the domestic marketer has
(B) the domestic marketer does
(C) those of the domestic marketer
(D) that which has the domestic marketer
分析：本题还是考查比较句，由于谓语动词是系动词are, 故先排除与其不对应的以has和does结尾的（A）和（B）。选项D则语义不清，也可排除。C中those代替前面提到的activities以避免重复，those一定要具备，因为只有这样才能满足比较的都是activities，谓语动词are因与主句谓语动词相同而被省略，因此C为正确答案。
例4：The annual worth of Utah's manufacturing
is greater than ——.
(A) that of its mining and farming combined
(B) mining and farming combination
(C) that mining and farming combined
(D) of its combination mining and farming
分析：本题为比较句，一般来说，比较的双方应属于同一类事物。句中主语显然是比较的一方，而空格处应是与之相对应的另一方。（B）、（C）、（D）均无法与the annual worth相对应，故可以排除。（A）中代词that代替 the annual worth, 是英语中常见的避免重复的用法，故选（A）。
十、定语从句省略结构
关系代词在定语从句中做宾语时可以省略
例1：Most crocodiles will eat anything----capture
and overpower.
(A) can
(B) they can
(C) which can
(D) and
分析：空格前是个完整句子，空格后是两个并列的及物动词，后面却没有宾语，由此可推断出空格处缺能作从句宾语的从句引导词和从句主语。（A）、（D）没有从句引导词，可首先排除。（C）有从句引导词，也可作从句的宾语，却没有从句主语。正确答案（B）看似没有从句引导词，实际上是省略了引导词that,故选（B）。that they can capture, that引导定语从句在句子中做capture的宾语。
例2：A majority of people in the United States can
get all the calcium their bodies----from the
food they eat.
(A) require
(B) requires
(C) requiring
(D)to require
分析：此题显然缺从句谓语动词，故首先排除（C）和（D）。（B）为第三人称单数形式，与主语bodies相矛盾，故也可排除,因此选择A。
their bodies require from the food they eat是定语从句修饰calcium, 省略了that; 实际上they eat也是定语从句省略了that修饰the food
“介词+名词”在定语从句中做表语时，关系代词和be动词可以同时省略，剩下的形容词短语做名词的后置定语。
例3：To produce one pound of honey , a colony of
A
bees must fly a distance equals to twice around
B C D
the world.
分析：句子中实际上是省略了that is, a distance that is equal to, 因此equals to 应该改为equal to
例4： A neutron star forms when a star much more massive
A B C
than the Sun dies and exploded.
D
分析：句中省略了which is， a star which is much more
十一、状语从句省略结构
Metals expand when they are heated.
Metals expand 是主句；when they are heated 是状语从句。但是这个状语从句中可以省略掉they are, 句子变成：Metals expand when heated. 但是并不是所有的状语从句都可以这么省略。这种省略从句主语的方式理论上需要满足以下两个条件：
第一、从句主语和主句主语必须保持一致；
第二、从句的谓语必须是be动词，主语和be动词同进同出，
比如上面的they和are要么同时省略，要么同时保留。
例1：Although----rigid, bones exhibit a degree of
elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand
considerable impact.
(A) apparently
(B) are apparently
(C) apparently their
(D) are they apparently
分析：连词although通常引导主谓完整的状语从句，当从句主语与主句主语相同、从句谓语又为系表结构时，则可省略主语和连系动词，故正确答案为（A）。Although apparently rigid = Although bones are apparently rigid, 注意bones和are必须同时省略。
因此，我们从上面的例题中来分析一下填空题中状语从句省略以后的形式：
though, although, even thought, while, If, when等为引导状语从句的词；
这些词后面一定+形容词(分词)，主句（注意逗号的后面是主句，前面是从句）
例2：All marble is composed of crystals of the
minerals calcite or dolomite, ----, are perfectly
white.
(A) when, pure which
(B) when, which pure
(C) which, pure when
(D) which, when pure
分析：空格前是个完整的句子，空格后是系表结构，空格处显然缺非限定性定语从句的引导词兼作从句主语。（A）、（B）不引导非限定性定语从句，可首先排除。（C）中的pure和when位置错了，故选（D）。注意when pure是插入语，同时也是省略用法when they are pure；which are perfectly white, 状语从句省略结构，
例3：——relatively costly, the diesel engine
is highly efficient and needs servicing
infrequently
(A) Even
(B) It is
(C) Even though
(D) There is
分析：B和D填入后，都是构成两个主句，不对；Even though则引导状语从句，even though it is, 这里it is 已经省略。
十二、动词ing+名词的复数作主语结构
这是一个比较难的结构，因为许多同学经常混淆动名词和现在分词。
现在分词相当于形容词，和后面的名词是修饰与被修饰的关系；
动名词是相当于具有动词特征的名词，和后面的名词是动宾关系。
那么如何在句子中判断动名词和现在分词呢？我们来看两个例子：
Doing exercises is a good habit. 做练习是一个好习惯。
The starring troops have to surrender.
第一个句子强调的是做，而不是练习，不能说练习是一个好习惯，只能说做练习是一个好习惯，因此do是中心词，它和后面的名词是动宾关系，那么这个do就是动名词；
第二个句子说挨饿的军队必须投降，是军队投降，而不是挨饿要投降，因此中心词是troop，starring是来修饰troop的，因此starring是现在分词。
在“动词ing+名词的复数”作主语结构的句子中，谓语动词是系动词is
例1：——by transferring the blame to others is often
called scapegoating.
(A) Eliminate problems
(B) The eliminated problems（被消除的问题）
(C) Eliminating problems
(D) Problems are eliminated
分析：空格处缺主语。（A）不能作主语，（B）的名词为复数，与后面谓语动词相矛盾，（D）使句子出现两个谓语，故排除。（C）构成动名词短语，可作句中主语，故选（C）。这个题目的意思是通过把责任转嫁给别人，这种消除问题的方式，通常叫做替罪羊。
例2：——wooden buildings helps to protect them
from damage due to weather.
(A) Painting
(B) Painted
(C) The paint
(D) By painting
分析：从谓语动词helps可判断出主语不可能为buildings, 因为主谓语在数上不一致，故空格处缺构成单数的词。四个选项中只有动名词painting符合这一条件，故选（A）。（B）构成复数名词短语，（C）无法与后面的名词连接，（D）构成介词短语，不能作主语，三个选项都可排除。
painted wooden buildings 被油漆的房子，中心词是buildings, 后面help不能用单数
painting wooden buildings油漆房子这件事情，中心词是painting
例3：Scientists think —— helps some tree to
conserve water in the winter.
(A) when losing leaves
(B) leaves are lost
(C) that losing leaves
(D) the leaves losing
分析：这道题目大家都能够选择C, 但是我们必须彻底理解C为什么正确，think that后面是宾语从句。losing是及物动词，丢弃叶子帮助树来保持水分，要注意不是树叶来帮助保持水分，而是丢弃树叶这个动作来保持水分。丢弃叶子是树主动丢弃，因此losing是动名词。
十三、make结构
make结构即为：make +sth.(宾语) +possible+（宾语补足语）
共有三种形式：
make it possible+to do
make it possible+that引导的从句
make possible sth (这个sth一定很长，它后面有一个后置定语)
做题技巧：
如果possible后面有to do 或者that引导的定语从句, 中间一定有it
如果possible后面有名词，中间一定没有it
例1：X-rays are able to pass through objects and
thus make——details that are otherwise
impossible to observe .
(A) it visible
(B) visibly
(C) visible
(D) they are visible
分析：此题考动词make的一种用法，visible后面有名词，因此中间不能有it，选择C；可以看到空格后that引导的是定语从句，visible是宾语补足语，宾语补足语的存在是因为宾语太长了，details是宾语。
例2：Using many symbols makes——to put a large
amount of information on a single map.
(A) possible
(B) it possible
(C) it is possible
(D) that possible
分析：从四个选项可以判断出本题考make的一种惯用法。首先排除明显的错误选项：C为句子，却没有与主句相连的连词，D中that后面应有主语并构成结构完整的从句。 由于后面是动词不定式，因此possible前面一定有it, it作形式宾语，故B正确。
十四、the more …the more…结构
这个结构的意思是“越….越…”，结构一共有三条规则：
1. the more后面的名词必须使用冠词或者所有格, 新题专门考这条规则
2. the more 后面的谓语如果是be动词的话，可以省略，例如上面的例题
3. 第二个the more 后面可以使用倒装，而第一个后面却不行
the more, the more其实是原因状语从句，前面是原因，后面是结果，倒装句中必须是主句倒装，从句绝对不能够倒装。
例1：The stronger——magnet, the greater the
number of lines of magnetic force.
(A) of
(B) the
(C) is the
(D) is of the
分析：本题显然考查”the more … the more…”结构，the more后面的名词必须使用冠词或者所有格，因此只能选择B
例2：The less the surface of the ground yields to the
weight of the body of a runner, ——to the body.
(A) the stress it is greater
(B) greater is the stress
(C) greater stress is
(D) the greater the stress
分析：正确答案为D。此题考the more … the more句型，只有D符合这一句型的要求，故选D。
十五、表示结果的伴随状语结构
主谓宾完整的句子后面，如果出现两个词，thereby或者thus, 那么这两个词后面必须使用现在分词，表示“从而怎么样”的意思，这便是表示结果的伴随状语结构。但是必须注意并不是thus后面就是加doing，必须是前面一个完整的句子才对。
例1：A microphone enables a soft tone to beamplified ,
A B
thus making it possible the gentle
C
renditions of romantic love songs in a large hall.
D
分析：Possible后面有名词，那么it应该去掉，thus后面表示结果的伴随状语从句，表示从而使得歌曲演唱成为可能。
例2：The Smithsonian Institution preserves more
than sixty-five million items of scientific,
historical, or artistic interest, ——winning the
popular title, “attic of the nation.”
(A) however
(B) thus
(C) and
(D) moreover
分析：逗号前面是个完整的句子，逗号后面是现在分词短语作状语表示结果。四个选项中只有thus一词可直接放在现在分词前面，故选B。thus 副词，修饰分词winning, 伴随状语
例3： Snow aids farmers by keeping heat in the
lower ground levels, thereby——from freezing.
(A) to save the seeds
(B) saving the seeds
(C)which saves the seeds
(D) the seeds saved
分析：thereby和to有意思重复，所以不能够选择(A), 后面应该跟现在分词，答案为B
十六、形容词最高级省略结构
The crane is the tallest bird of the wading birds.
最高级后面的名词与范围名词重复，可以省略，句子变为The crane is the tallest of the wading birds.
例1：The crane is——of the wading birds.
(A) the tallest
(B) the tallest that is
(C) which is the tallest
(D) which the tallest is
分析：空格前是主语和谓语，空格后是of引导的介词短语，空格处明显缺作表语的名词或名词短语。四个选项中只有（A）使句子结构完整，语义清楚，故选（A）。
例2：. Cows are said to be the least intelligently of
A B C
domestic animals.
D
分析：改为形容词，intelligent，intelligently为副词，不能作表语。
十七、规则动词过去分词作定语结构
这里的规则动词指的是过去式和过去分词一样，导致考生看不出句子结构，比如：
program, programmed, programmed
因此判断这个词是过去式还是过去分词就显得比较重要：
第一步：从逻辑上判断这个动作是主动还是被动
第二步：如果是被动的话，做谓语前面一定有系动词be
例1：——Wupatki National Monument in Arizona
features structures built of red sandstone by
ancestors of the Hopi people.
(A) That the
(B) In the
(C) Around the
(D) The
分析：空格后是结构完整的句子，空格处显然缺定冠词the 修饰主语，故选D。A中that引导主语从句，使整个句子变成从句而无主句，B、C构成介词短语，使句子缺主语，故排除。句子中的built是过去分词。
例2：Antibodies ——by small, round cells called
lymphocytes and plasma cells.
(A) to be made
(B) making
(C) made
(D) are made
分析：空格前为名词作主语，空格后是介词by引导的动作执行者，called是过去分词作定语，所以句子缺谓语，故选D。A、B、C均为非谓语动词，故排除。
例3：Automatons programmed to perform a given
task ------the flexibility and adaptability of
human beings.
(A) without
(B) lack
(C) minus
(D) not having
分析：programmed在句中是过去分词作名词后置修饰语，空格处缺谓语动词。四个选择答案中只有（B）是可作谓语的动词，故选（B）。
B， programmed是一个定语，而不是谓语
机器人被编制程序，所以是过去分词，而不是谓语动词
十八、逻辑主语结构
在一个完整的句子前面出现现在分词、过去分词、或者介词短语，那么这个句子的主语是前面这三种结构逻辑上的主语。
例1：Having been served lunch, ——.
(A) the problem was discussed by the members
of the committee
(B) the committee members discussed the
problem
(C) it was discussed by the committee
members the problem
(D) a discussion of the problem was make by
the members of the committee
分析：Having been served lunch指被招待了午饭，那么只可能是委员会的成员被招待，而不可能是问题，所以选择B
例2：——was not incorporated as a city until
almost two centuries later, in 1834.
(A) Settling Brooklyn, the Dutch
(B) The Dutch settled Brooklyn
(C) Brooklyn was settled by the Dutch
(D) Settled by the Dutch, Brooklyn
分析：空格后面是谓语和状语，空格处缺主语。Brooklyn表示人或者Dutch表示地方做主语，但是从as a city可知，主语不是人名，而是地名，由此首先排除A。B、C均是句子，不合要求。D符合句法和题意。
例3：At thirteen ——- at a district school near her
home, and when she was fifteen , she saw her
first article in print.
(A) the first teaching position that Mary Jane
Hawes had
(B) the teaching position was Mary Jane
Hawe's first
(C) when Mary Jane Hawes had her first
teaching position
(D) Mary Jane Hawes had her first teaching
position
分析：从并列连词and 可知，第一个逗号前是一个完整的句子，空格处缺主谓结构，而且主语是一个人名。四个选项中只有D以人名作主语，故选D。
例4： Even at low levels, ——.
(A) the nervous system has produced
detrimental effects by lead
(B) lead's detrimental effects are producing the
nervous system
(C) lead produces detrimental effects on the
nervous system
(D) the detrimental effects produced by lead on
the nervous system
分析：空格前为介词短语状语，空格处缺一个完整的句子。A、B结构上似乎完整，但意思不清，D不是完整的句子，故选C。
例5：The chorus plays a large part in any oratorio, linking
A B C
areas were sung by soloists with segments of choral music.
D
分析：应该把D中的were去掉
十九、复合宾语结构
有些及物动词+宾语后意思表达不完整，需要再加形容词或者名词来补充说明宾语被叫做不完全及物动词，该形容词或者名词叫做宾语补足语。宾语加补足语叫做复合宾语。当宾语和宾补由主动语态变为被动语态，分别变为主语和主补。
We played soccer.
We called him Bob. Bob在这里作宾语补足语
He was called Bob. Bob在这里作主语补足语
下面列出了一些经常要求使用宾补的动词
make, consider, call, elect, appoint,
例：We appoint him monitor.
We elected him president.
例1：Poodles were once used as retrievers in duck
hunting , but the American Kennel Club does not
consider them ——because they are now primarily
kept as pets.
(A) where sporting dogs
(B) sporting dogs
(C) when sporting dogs
(D) they are sportingdogs
分析：选择B, them是宾语，sporting dogs宾补
二十、It结构
一、强调句型
It is + 强调部分+that +其余部分
这个句型需要注意几点：
强调部分+其余部分是一个完整的句子；
强调部分可以强调主语、宾语和状语，不能强调谓语和定语；
强调人使用who或者that, 其他的只能用that (即使是时间和地点)，who 和that绝对不能省略
如果原句是过去时态，强调句型使用it was.，例如：
原句： Ann bought these books last year.
强调宾语：It was these books that Ann bought last year.
强调状语：It was last year that Ann bought these books.
二、形式主语
It is + 名词/形容词+ to do/that 引导的句子
to do/that 引导的句子是真正的主语，it 是形式主语，这是为了避免头重脚轻。
例1：It is the interaction between people , rather than
A B
the events that occur in their lives , that are
C
the main focus of social psychology.
D
分析：Rather than …是插入语，主句是强调句型, it is …that, 主语是interaction, 所以是is
例2： ——an increasing international exchange of
educational films.
(A) It is
(B) There is
(C) Though there is
(D) Although it is
分析：缺少主谓，选择B, it 用在句子的句首，只可能作强调句型或者形式主语。空格后是一个名词短语，只有B与之构成完整的句子。A语义不完整，C、D则使整个句子成了让步从句而缺主句，故都可排除。
二十一、which 引导的定语从句结构
which是关系代词，which后面应该加缺主语或者宾语的句子，
在这个句子中，which要作成分，作主语或者宾语
in which+完整的句子
which在定语从句中作in的宾语，所以不能作后面句子的主语
名词+of which+谓语动词
of which来修饰名词，名词在定语从句中作主语，所以后面直接跟谓语动词
例1：In blank verse——of ten syllables, five of
which are accented.
(A) line consists of each
(B) consists of each line
(C) each line consists
(D) it consists of each line
分析：空格前后均为介词词组，逗号后为非限定性定语从句，空格处缺主句主谓成分。A单数名词line前没有限定词，而且语义不清，B没有主语，D中it 指代不明，所以选C。
five of which are accented表示其中五个要被重读，of which修饰five, 十个中的五个
例2：The spiral threads of spider's web have a
sticky substance on them ------ insects.
(A) traps
(B) trap its
(C) which traps
(D) which it traps
分析：空格前为完整的主谓结构，后面是一个名词，A和B显然不能与前面的谓语动词并列，故可以首先排除。D中的代词it明显是多余的，故也不对。C为正确选项，其中关系代词which指代前面的名词短语a sticky substance。网上有粘状的物质来诱捕昆虫。
例3：Traditionally, ethnographers and linguists
have paid little attention to cultural
A
interpretations given to silence, or to the types of
B C
social contexts in which tends to occur.
D
分析：D错，in which后面跟完整句子。In which it, it 指代silence, or to 和第二行的to并列
例4：After the First World War, the author Anais Nin
became interested in the art movement
known as Surrealism and in psychoanalysis,
both ——her novels and short stories.
(A) in which the influence
(B) of which influenced
(C) to have influence
(D) its influence in
分析：第二个逗号前为结构完整的句子，A中有从句引导词which, 却没有谓语动词，构成不了完整的句子。C中最后一个词为名词，无法与后面的名词短语连接，D构成名词短语，不合题意，而且名词influence一般接介词on, 故三个选项都可排除。B构成一个非限定性定语从句，故选B。